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Lecture 21-ed participle(past participle)
Teaching Aims(1)To know the grammatical function of –ed participle(2)To grasp the use of-ed participle
(3)To grasp the differences between-ed and –ing participles Teaching Content
(1)The logical subject
(2)The grammatical function
(3)The difference between present participle and –ed participle
1.The logical subject of –ed participle
1)Found in the main sentence: the subject or the object of the sentence
e.g.Given enough time , we can do it well.2)Not the subject or object in the main sentence, logical subject should be made up.e.g.The girl sat there silent, her head bent low.2.The grammatical function 2.1 –ed participle as premodifier
As premodifier in a noun phrase,-ed participles are mostly derived from transitive verbs;only a few come from intransitive verbs.1)–ed participle derived from transitive verbs
The difference between –ed participle and –ing participle As premodifier, transitive –ed participle usually denote a paive meaning or sense of completion.This is distinguished from –ing participles which may come from transitive and intransitive verbs and which usually expre an meaning or a sense of incompletion.e.g.frozen food
a freezing wind
the spoken language
a speaking bird As premodifier, some –ed participles cannot be used alone unle they are combined with a negative prefix “un-” or when they are combined with an adverb to form a compound.e.g.an unedited story
highly developed industry
untold suffering
far-fetched reasons 2)–ed participle derived from from intransitive verbs The use of intransitive –ed participles as premodifiers tends to be limited only to a few verbs: retired, escaped, faded, withered, fallen, expired, risen, returned, vanished, grown.These –ed participles have the sense of completion but imply no paive meaning.e.g.a retired teacher
the risen sun
a withered flower 2.2 –ed participle as complement
-Ed participles that can be used as complement mostly come from transitive verbs.Adjectival –ed participles can generally function either as complements or premodifiers, except for some relics of Old English.1)–ed participle used as subject complement
The differences between –ed participle as subject complement and paive voice: –ed participle as subject complement exprees state of verb e.g.The road is completed.The top of the mountain is covered with snow.paive voice exprees action of verb e.g.The road was completed yesterday.The top of the mountain is covered by a cloud.2)–ed participle used as object complement Verbs that can take an –ed participle as object complement fall into three groups.The first group includes verbs of perception and verbs denoting mental state such as see, hear, feel, find, think, etc.e.g.I saw the students aembled in the hall.Everybody thought the battle lost.The second group includes causative verbs such as make, get, have, keep, etc.e.g.I have my hair cut every month.Please keep us informed of the latest development.The third group includes verbs denoting hope, expectation, order, such as like, want, wish, order, etc, e.g.I don’t want you involved in the scandal.The viewers wish the serial film continued.2.3 –ed participle used as adverbial –ed participle as subject complement can be used as adverbial of time, reason, condition, conceion, manner and campany.e.g.Finishing the homework, they went home.3.Dangling participle 3.1 “attachment rule” and “dangling participle”
When an –ing or –ed participle construction is used as a relative or adverbial clause, its logical subject is usually identifiable with the subject or other element of the main clause.It is through this relationship that the participle construction is “attached” to the main clause.This is known as the “attachment rule”.e.g.Sitting at the back as we were, we couldn’t hear a word.He was hurt by a stone dropped from the roof.Violation of the “attachment rule” will result in a “dangling participle”
e.g.Opening the cupboard, a skeleton fell out.Being dark, we had to go back.3.2 Problems about the acceptability of “dangling participles”
Linguists are divided in opinion about the acceptability of “dangling participles”.Prescriptive grammarians condemn all “dangling” constructions, while descriptive linguists take a more liberal point of view.“Dangling” constructions should not be regarded as objectionable indiscriminately.These constructions are frequently found in formal scientific writing, in which it is general practice to avoid using personal subjects.In formal style, so long as they do not cause ambiguity or confusion in meaning, “dangling participles” should also be viewed as normal and acceptable.Only “dangling” constructions are objectionable or unacceptable that cause ambiguity or suggest absurd interpretations.Form pedagogical point of view, however, beginners in English should not be encouraged to use “dangling” constructions unle in scientific writing.Now ae the following:
When installing a boiler, the floor space which is available is very important.Using the electricity energy, it is neceary to change its form.Having been deserted by his guide, there seemed little hope that the explorer would find his way through the jungle.When driving carelely, it is easy to have an accident.Standing on the church tower, the whole village could be seen.Having eaten our lunch, the car pushed its way through the tortuous canyon.Lecture 23 Adjective and Adverb Phrases
Teaching Aims(1)To know the characters and claification of adjective phrase(2)To grasp the use of adjective phrase(3)To grasp function of adjective phrase Teaching Content
(1)The characters and claification of adjective phrase(2)The function of adjective phrase
1.Characters of adjective
Adjectives are open-cla words.They are chiefly used as modifier elements in a sentence.2.Claification of adjectives
Adjectives may be divided into one-word and compound adjectives, central and peripheral adjectives, dynamic and stative adjectives, gradable and non-gradable adjectives.2.1 In terms of word formation, adjectives may be divided into one-word and compound adjectives.One-word adjective is composed of oly one free morpheme, such as big, angry,small and so on.It may also consist of a free morpheme as root plus a prefix or a suffix or both, such as unkind, impoible, lovely, unthinkable.Compound adjective are formed in different ways.They may be “adjective + adjective”, such as bitter-sweet, “adjective/adverb +-ing participle”, such as good-looking, hardworking, “adjective/adverb +-ed participle”, such as well-known, “noun + adjective” such as gra-green, “noun +-ing participle” such as ocean-going, “noun +-ed participle” such as man-made, “adjective + noun +-ed” such as kind-hearted，2.2 In terms of syntactic function, adjectives may be divided into central and peripheral adjectives.Central adjectives: used as both modifiers and subjective/objective complement.Peripheral adjectives: cannot satisfy both modifiers and subjective/objective complement.Only be used as subject complement: asleep, afraid, aware, awake, alike, content, alone, ashamed, glad, alive, unable, well fond, sorry.Only be used as premodifier: wooden, outer, little, woolen, daily, golden, former, weekly, spare, latter, right, only, inner, elder, live.2.3 In terms of semantics, adjectives may be divided into dynamic and stative adjectives.dynamic adjectives: describing the static characteristics of animate or inanimate object, such as tall, short, big, small.stative adjectives: describing dynamic properties of people or things, such as careful, generous, patient, witty.2.4 Morphologically, adjectives may be divided into gradable and non-gradable adjectives.Most of adjectives are gradable adjectives.All dynamic adjectives and most stative adjectives are gradable adjectives.Gradable adjectives: careful, clever, small, tall, beautiful and so on.Non-gradable adjectives: perfect, round, square, excellent, extreme, last, final, and so on.2.5 adjectives and participles
As has been mentioned before, participles can sometimes be used as modifiers in a noun phrase.Some participles have all the features of adjective.They admit of modification by very;they have forms of comparative and superlative degrees;and they may be used as complement in the sentence.1)Adjectives from –ing participles: they are alarming, boring, interesting, tiring, disappointing, fascinating and so on.2)Adjectives from –ed participles: they are alarmed, bored, tired, interested, satisfied, worried, distinguished, limited and so on.Some –ing and –ed participles cannot not be used as adjectives, such as working, teaching, built, invented.But they reach full adjective status when they are compounded with an adverb, such as badly-invented, well-built, well dreed.3)The meaning of participle adjectives may be active or paive.–ing participle adjective usually expre active meaning,-ed participle adjectives paive meaning.3.Function of adjective: 3.1 used as modifier in a noun phrase
As modifiers n the noun phrase, adjectives usually appear after the determiner and before the headword, but they sometimes may take a post-head position.3.2 used as subject/ object complement e.g.Don’t feel bad.Every thing will be all right.They found the book quite interesting.He thought it sensele attempting the impoible.3.3 used as adverbial e.g.He spent seven days in the wind and snow, cold and hungry.Afraid of difficulties, they prefer to take the road.Lecture 25 Comparison and Comparative
Constructions
Teaching Aims
(1)To get the formation of adjectives’ and adverbs’ comparative and superlative degrees.(2)To grasp the construction of adjectives’ and adverbs’ comparative and superlative degrees.(3)To master how to use adjectives’ and adverbs’ comparative and superlative degrees.Teaching Content(1)The formation of adjectives’ and adverbs’ comparative and superlative degrees(2)The construction of adjectives’ and adverbs’ comparative and superlative degrees(3)The use of adjectives’ and adverbs’ comparative and superlative degrees(4)Contrast between comparative and superlative degrees in construction and use
1.The formation of adjectives’ and adverbs’ comparative and superlative degrees With gradable adjectives and adverbs, there are three degrees of comparison: positive/ absolute degree, comparative degree and superlative degree.The positive/ absolute degree is just the base form of an adjective or adverb.The comparative and superlative degrees may be regular or irregular.Most adjectives and adverbs have regular comparison, only a few of them are irregular.1.1 regular comparisons of adjectives and adverbs Comparison in relation to a higher or the highest degree is expreed by the inflected forms in –er or –est, or by their equivalents with more-or most-;the former is known as the synthetic form and the latter the analytic form.Generally speaking, adjective or adverb of one syllable form their comparative degree in –er and their superlative degree in –est.Adjective or adverb of more than one syllable usually take more-and most-.▲Notice: a.some adjectives and adverbs with one syllable by adding more-and most-.e.g.pleased, tired, fond, glad
b.adjectives with two syllables b adding –er and –est or more and most.e.g.tender, clever c.adjective ending with –y or –ow by adding –er and est
e.g.happy, pretty, narrow, shallow 1.2 irregular comparisons of adjectives or adverbs 2.Comparison construction
There are three types of comparative construction 2.1 “As … as” construction
as + 形容词或副词原级 + as 例如: He is as strong as a bee.Tom studies as hard as Jack.As much/many +noun + as-clause Not so much/many + noun + as-clause e.g.You can take as much butter as you can.She wrote as many eays as her brother.He didn’t drink as /so much wine as his roommate.As + adjective + noun phrase + as-clause e.g.Groege is as efficient a worker as Jack.a/an + singular count noun zero + noun count
rarely: zero + plural noun
noun phrase + as..as construction
e.g.George is efficient a worker as Jack.George is a worker as efficient as Jack.注意: 1）在否定句或疑问句中可用so… as。例如：
He cannot run so/as fast as you.他没你跑得快。2）当as… as 中间有名词时采用以下格式：as +形容词+ a +单数名词/ as + many/much +名词。例如：
This is as good an example as the other is.这个例子和另外一个一样好。
I can carry as much paper as you can.你能搬多少纸，我也能。3）用表示倍数的词或其他程度副词做修饰语时，放在as的前面。例如：
This room is twice as big as that one.这房间的面积是那间的两倍。
Your room is the same size as mine.你的房间和我的一样大。4）倍数+ as + adj.+ as 倍数+ the … + of。例如：
This bridge is three times as long as that one.这座桥的长度是那座的三倍。
This bridge is three times the length of that one.Your room is twice as large as mine.你的房间是我的两倍大。
Your room is twice the size of mine.5)….the same as…
Marry looks the same as before.6)句型中,第二个As是连词,后面省去了某些成分的状语分句
e.g.She is not nearly as old as she.Tom’s handwriting is good as mine.The weather in Chongqing is as hot as in Wuhan in summer.2.2 “More… than…” construction
比较级形容词或副词 + than。例如：
You are taller than I.你比我高。
They lights in your room are brighter than those in mine.你房间的那些灯比我房间里的亮。
Determiner more/le/fewer + noun + than-clause
e.g.I have done more work than he.You have made fewer mistakes than I have.Determiner a/an +comparative adjective + noun + than
e.g.John is a more efficient worker than Jack.Determiner a/an + noun + comparative adject + than
e.g.John is a worker more efficient than Jack.Rarely: comparative adjective + determiner a/an + noun + than
Determiner the + cpmparative adjective/ adverb + of –phrase
e.g.John is the brighter of the two boys.Of the two boys John behaves(the)more politely.More/le of a + noun + than-clause
e.g.He is more/ le of a sportman than his brother.2.3 the + 最高级 + 比较范围
1)形容词最高级前通常必须用定冠词 the，副词最高级前可不用。例如： The Sahara is the biggest desert in the world.形容词most前面没有the，不表示最高级的含义，只表示“非常”。例如：
It is a most important problem.=It is a very important problem.注意：使用最高级要注意将主语包括在比较范围内。
（错）Tom is the tallest of his three brothers.（对）Tom is the tallest of the three brothers.最高级形容词前如由物主限定词或名词所有格,可以不用定冠词。如：My oldest son is seventeen years of age.It is Japan’s largest city.最高级形容词作主语补足语时，如不明确涉及比较的对象，可以不用定冠词。
如：Wool and cotton blankets are generally cheapest.2)下列词可修饰最高级，by far, far, much, mostly, almost。它们在定冠词和最高级之前。例如：
This hat is nearly / almost the biggest.注意：a.very可修饰最高级，但位置与much不同。very用于定冠词和最高级之间，注意不能和由构成的最高级连用。Much用于定冠词和最高级之前
e.g.It was of the very highest quality.This is the very best.This is much the best.序数词用于定冠词和最高级之间。
e.g.San Francisco is the 13th largest city in USA.b.序数词通常只修饰最高级。例如：
Africa is the second largest continent.非洲是第二大洲。
c.by far既可用在定冠词和最高级之前，也可用在名词之后。
e.g.She is by far the best teacher.She is the best teacher by far.d.most与形容词连用时并非总是最高级，它可以作修饰语，是very的意思，不要求加定冠词。
e.g.My grandfather is a most extraordinary man.It’s most kind of you to tell me about it.3)最高级的意义有时可以用比较级表示出来。例如：
Mike is the most intelligent in his cla.马克是班上最聪明的。
Mike is more intelligent than any other students in his cla.4)“否定词语+比较级”，“否定词语+ so… as”结构也可以表示最高级含义。例如：
Nothing is so easy as this.没比这更简单的了。
=Nothing is easier than this.=This is the easiest thing.e.The negative form of the superlative construction is “the least…”
e.g.This is the least difficult book I have ever read.5)使用最高级形容词的句子中，为了要指明对哪一类事物进行比较，可以用以下方式表示：
用介词of, in, among引起的短语
e.g.She is the most sensible of the girls.I’m in the worst busine in the world.用关系分句
e.g.That is the best film I have ever seen.用-ible或-able结尾的形容词，它们既可以放在最高级形容词和名词之间，也可放在名词之后。
e.g.This is the best poible answer.It is the most beautiful scenery imaginable.6）比较级是独立的任何事物的比较，最高级是一个整体的一员与整个群体的比较。所以在确定比较对象或范围时特别要注意than或of后面的内容。
E.g.Mary’s nicer than her three sisters are.Mary’s the nicest of the four firls in the family.Mount Blanc is higher than all other Alpine peaks.Mount Blanc is the highest peak in the Alps.3.Contrast between comparative constructions
1)more… than… vs quasi-coordinative type e.g.He is more good than bad.= He is good rather than bad.2)not so … as vs not so much …as
e.g.It wasn’t so much his appearance I liked as his personality.= I liked his personality rather than his appearance.3)not more/-er … than
vs no more /-er … than
e.g.My trip to Beijing is more than sightseeing.= My trip to Beijing is not merely for sightseeing.4)the more..the more
vs more and more e.g.The older I get, the happier I am.= when I get older, I become happier.The car was running faster and faster.= His health is getting better and better.5)at least: At least three students are failing in maths.（起码，至少）
She should at least apologize.（表示应该）
She may be slow but at least she’s reliable.（不管怎样）
At the very least: At the very least, it costs $10.Least of all: I don’t want anyone to come, least of all him.（“在…之中”尤其）
Least of all would I lie to you.(最不)Not in the least: I don’t like traveling in the least.(一点也不, 绝对不)
“Are you satisfied with it?” “Not in the least!”(作修饰语)not least: Trade has been bad, not least because of the increased cost of raw materials.(部分地, 特别地)To say the least(of it): He was rather offened, to say the least of it.(至少可以说)
His conuct that evening was to say the least curious.6)more than e.g.You would be more than welcome.（用于形容词或副词前加以强调，意思是“极其”，“非常”）
They were more than glad to help.（用于名词前作状语，表示“不仅”）
She was much more than a friend to me.（用于动词前作状语，表示“不仅）
More… than= rather than
e.g.She is more thoughtle than tupid.This is more a war movie than a western.No more than:(仅仅)e.g.It was nothing more than a shower.No more … than…:（和…一样不）
e.g.Physics is no more maths than it is philosophy.I know no more Spanish than I know Greek.Not …any more than:(和…一样不)e.g.I don’t like smoking any more than you.Not more…than:(没有…那样)e.g.I am not more mad than you are.7)all the + comparative degree:(= even)e.g.Opening the windows made it all the hotter.So much the + comparative degree:(更)e.g.So much the worse for you if you break the rule.If you are able to come, so much the better.None the + comparative:(根本)e.g.He is none the happier for his wealth.Lecture 39 Inversion 谓语动词放在主语之前的这种语法现象称为倒装。从倒装的形式来看，可分为全部倒装(full inversion)和部分倒装(partial inversion)两种。前者是指整个谓语置于主语之前，而后者仅是指助动词、情态动词或be 动词等功能置于主语这前。引起倒装的情况多种多样，倒装的表现形式大体有下列几种：
1．在疑问句中
例1：How are you getting along with your work? 例2：Is this report written in detail?
注：如疑问词作主语或者作定语修饰主语时，不发生倒装。
2．在there be 及其类似结构中
例1：There are forty students in our cla.例2：There seem to be still some elements undiscovered yet.例3：There stands a bridge acro the river.3．在表示祝愿的句子中
例1：Long live the People's Republic of China!例2：May you succeed!
例3：Dog-tired though they were, they continued to march on.4．在省略if 的虚拟语气条件状语从句中
这类句子中有were, had, should等词时，把were, had或should置于句首。
例1：Were there no air or water, there would be no life in the world.例2：Had you been more careful, such spelling mistakes might have been avoided.5．在so, nor, neither或no more开头的句子中
此类句子通常表示前面一句话中的谓语所说明的情况，也适用于另一句中的主语。例如：
1）This problem is not difficult and neither is that one.2）Coal is under the ground in some places, and so is oil.6．在以具有否定意义的副词、连词及词组开头的句子中
这些词和词组通常有：rarely, never, scarcely, no sooner, little, few, hardly, seldom, at no time, in no way, on no account, nowhere, nobody, not only等。例如：
1）Visit our stores.Nowhere else will you find such magnificent bargains.2）Hardly had he finished his work when the telephone rang.3）Not only did he complain about the food, he also refused to pay for it.4）Little did we think his speech had made so deep an impreion on his audience.7．在强调表语时
例1：Worst of all were the humiliations.例2：Such is the case.8．在强调宾语时
例1：Still greater contributions should we make to our socialist construction.例2：Useful chemical fertilizer can we make from the waste liquid.注：当前置宾语由“not a +名词”或者“not a single +名词”构成时，也会引起倒装。例如：
Alice had a terrible time touring that country.Not a day did she spend without having some unpleasantne with waiters in the hotel.9．在强调状语时
（1）当句首状语为方位词或拟声词，谓语动词为go, come等表示位置转移的动词时句子须倒装。例如：
1）Up went the plane.2）In came the chairman and the meeting began.注：如果主语是代词则不发生倒装。例如：
1）Out they rushed!2）Lower and lower he bent.(2)当句首状语为表示地点的介词词组时，句子须倒装。例如：
1）Round the corner walked a large policeman.2）Under the table was lying a half-conscious young man.（3）当句首状语由“only +副词”，“only +介词词组”，“only +状语从句”构成时，句子须倒装。例如：
1）Only yesterday did he find out that his watch was miing.2）Only because there were some cancelled bookings did he get some tickets in the end.（4）当句首状语为here, there, now, then等时，句子须倒装，主语是代词时，句子不用倒装。例如：
1）Here is a ticket for you.2）Now comes your turn.3）Here he comes.（5）以关联词so(…that)开头的句子中，句子须倒装。例如： 1）So small was the mark that I could hardly see it.2）So quickly did the workmen finish their work that they were given a bonus.3）So much does he worry about his financial position that he can't sleep at night.注：在该结构中，“so +形容词”是表语的前置；“so +副词”是状语的前置。
10．在直接引语之后
在叙事性书面语中，直接引语后常跟asked Mary, answered John, said the old lady, grunted Peter之类的词语。在这些词语中，动词常的主语之前，主语是代词时，不用倒装。例如：
1）“What do you mean?” asked Henry.2）“What do you mean?” he asked.11.often, many a time等表示频度的状语置于句首时
例如：Often did they think of going there, but they never had a chance.12．在as, though引导的让步状语从句中
在as, though引导的让步状语从句中，一般将形容词、副词或名词等置于句首。例如：
1）Small as the atom is, we can smash it.2）Big as the workpiece is, it is turned out with
