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Abstract: this paper introduce the development history of steel construction,in the early stage,the Bemer and Siemens-Martin progre,make it poible to produce steel in large for structure ,especial in bridge construction and ship fabricating ,which bring huge advance to the improvement of steel material,the Crystal Palace ,the Eads Bridge ,the EiFfel tower,which indentify the steel use widely.Secongly,with development of steel construction , the skyscrapers come up and
to be more and more higher,because of
steel rapid development ,which bring many problem.to limit the phenomenon.The steel construction toward another advance.At last the two world war interrupt steel construction ,after the war, many countries put more study on steel,and improve the steel function ,paperwork to be more quickly by the application of computer.Key word: steel construction iron beam the Bemer and Siemens-Martin progre skyscrapers
Steel Construction
Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role.Most steel construction consists of large-scale building or engineering works,with the steel generally in the form of beams,girders,bars,plates,and other members shaped through the hot-rolled proce.Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S,U.K,U.S.S.R.Japan,West Germany,France,and other steel producers in the 1970s Early history.The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bemer and Siemens-Martin progre made it poible to produce in quantities sufficient for structure use.Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction,which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge,built in cast iron over The Severn River in Englang in 1777.This and subsequent iron bridge work,in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls,spurred the development of techniques for fabricating ,designing,and joining.The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required.The tru form ,based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation,long used in timber ,was translated Effectively into iron,with cast iron being used for compreion members_i.e, hose bearing the weight of direct loading __ang wrought iron being used for tension members_i.e,those bearing the pull of suspended loading The technique for paion iron ,heated to the plastic state,between rolls to form flat and rounded bars,was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled;and in1849 the first I beams,17.7feet(5.4meters)long,were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851.He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction_using Relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the gla walls of a large,open structure,Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal Palace was provided by diagonal iron rods.Two features are particularly important in the history of metal construction:first,the use of latticed girders,which are small trues,a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton;and second ,the joining of wrought_iron tension members and cast_iron compreion members by means of rivets inserted while rails In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for Cooper Union Building in New York.In the light of the principal market demand for iron beam at the time,it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rail The development of the Beemer and Siemens_Martin procees in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose.Stronger than iron in both tension and compreion,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers ,notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain,Europe,and the U.S.A notable example was the Eads Bridge,also known as the St.Louis Bridge,in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft(152.5m),In Britain,the,Firth of forth cantilever bridge(1883_90)employed tubular struts,some 12 ft(3.66m)in diameter and 350 ft(107m)long.Such bridge and other structures were important in leading to the the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permiible design strees,The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge,and even me an adequate basis for theoretical studies,limited the value of stre analysis during the early years of the 20th century ,as occasional failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907, revealed.But failures were rare in the metal _skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques.Throughout the first third of the century,ordinary carbon steel,without any special alloy strengthening or hardening,was universally used.The poibilities inherent in metal construction for high_rise buildings was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889,for which Alexandre_Gustave EiFfel, a leading French bridge engineer,erected an openwork metal tower 300m high.Not only was the height_more than double that of the Great Pyramid _remarkable,but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so,a small crew completed the work in a few months.At the same exhibition the huge,single_story Galerie des Machines,housing some of the exhibits,also contributed significantly to the advance of metal construction.Its roof was supported by latticed steel arch ribs spanning 114.3m
The first skyscrapers.Meantime,in the United States another important development was taking place.In 1884_85 Maj.William Le Baron Jenny,a Chicago engineer,had designed the Home Insurance Building,ten stories high,with a metal skeleton.Jenny's beams were of Beemer steel,though his columns were cast iron.Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were,in turn,supported on the cast columns.Solid masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading.Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and new York.Steel played a larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns,sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying guet plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members.Light masonry curtain walls,supported at each floor level,replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decades,its impact on the steel industry was worldwide.By the last years thof the 19 century,the basic structural shapes_I beams up to 20 in.(0.508m)in depth and Z and T shapes of leer proportions__were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknees to make efficient members of any required size and strength.In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot_rolling weighed le than 100 pounds(45 kilograms)per foot;decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds(320kilograms)per foot Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the otis electric elevator in 1889.The demonstration of a safe paenger elevator,together with that of a safe economical steelconstruction method ,sent building heights soaring.In New York the 286-ft(87.2-m)Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpaed in 1904 by the 375-ft(115-m)Times Building(renamed the Allied Chemical Building)the 468-ft(143-m)City Inveting Company Building in Wall Street,the 612-ft(187-m)Singer Building(1908),the700-ft(214-m)Metropolitan Tower(1909)and ,in 1913 ,the 780-ft(232-m)Woolworth Building The rapid icrease in height ang the height-to _width ratio brought problems.To limit street congestion ,building setback design was prescribed.On the technicalside,the problem of lateral support was studied.A diagonal bracing system,such as that used in the Eiffel Tower,was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination.The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into skeleton frame,together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns.With today `s modern interior lighting systems,however ,diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned;one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago,where the external X-brace form a dramatic part of the structural`s façade World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers(the origin of the word is uncertain),but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race,culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931.The Empire State Building`s 102 stories(1250ft.[381m])were to keep it established as the highest building in the world for the next 40 years.Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered.A depot acro the bay at Bayonne,N.J.,supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with military precision;nine derricks powered by electric hoists lifted the girders to position;an industrial_railway setup moved steel and other material on each floo.As the building rose,the hoist engines were lifted outside the building to succeively higher stages.Intial connections were made by bolting,closely followed by riveting, followed by masonary and finishing.The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been succefully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I,but its application to construction was limited until World War II.Since then it has gained steadily,especially in shop fabrication.Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high_strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections Since the close of World War II,research in Europe,the U.S,and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different type of structural steel undervarying strees,including those exceeding the yield point,making poible more refined and systematic analysis.This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries,permitting freer,more imaginative design made poible by so_called plastic design and by the use of higher strength materials,with significant savings in cost。The introduction of the computer by short_cutting tedious paperwork,made further advances and savings poible
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摘要：本文介绍了钢结构的早期阶段发展历史，贝塞麦炼钢法和马丁平炉炼钢法，让大量生产为建筑使用的钢材成为可能，特别是在桥梁建造和船舶制造业上，为此给钢材料性能带来了巨大的提高。水晶宫﹑伊兹大桥﹑埃菲尔铁塔的建成，有效地证实了钢的广泛运用。其次介绍了随着钢结构的进一步发展，摩天大楼纷纷出现，并且的越来越高了。由于钢的飞速发展，带来了许多问题。为了限制这种现象，钢结构朝新的方向发展。最后介绍了两次世界大战中断了钢结构的进展，战后许多国家纷纷投更多的研究到 钢之上，提高了钢的性能，通过电脑的运用令手工计算变得便捷。
关键词：钢结构 铁 梁 贝塞麦炼钢法和马丁平炉炼钢法 摩天大楼
钢筋结构是以钢筋为主要作用组件，其涉及到房屋建筑比较大的范围。几乎所有的钢结构是由大规模的建筑或者工程建筑物组成的，通常通过热扎工序形成主梁，横梁，杆，板，和其他构件的形状，在上世纪70年代，尽管其他材料使用增加，但是美国，英国，苏联，日本，西德，法国的钢铁工业和其他钢铁生产国家依然以钢筋作为主要的出口产品。
早期的历史。钢结构起始于，采用贝塞麦法和西蒙斯-马丁（平炉炼钢法）大量生产钢筋为建筑物的使用成为可能之前的数十年。许多钢结构的问题 与1777年在英国开始使用生铁在塞文河之上建造科尔布鲁克代尔大桥的铁结构联系起来研究。从那以后的铁桥梁工程，除了蒸汽锅炉和铁船体的建造之外，刺激了铁制造技术，设计技术，和连接技术的发展。铁的的优势是比石造工程所需的材料更少。桁架的外形长期使用原木，根据三角形的抵抗力来变形，有效地被铁表达出来，把铁作为承压构件，即承受重量的直接荷载，同时铁可以用来作为抗拉构件，即承受悬载重的拉力。
通过把铁加热到塑性状态，压制形成平状和圆状的技术，早在1800 年 发展了。在1819年之前角铁被制造出来。1849年第一个工字梁，5.4米 长，被制造出来作为巴黎火车铁路的屋顶梁。两年之后，1851年英国的约瑟夫-派克斯顿为伦敦世博会建造了水晶宫。据说他构想出一个笼子建筑的概念—使用相对细长的铁制梁作为玻璃墙的构架，打开建筑物。水晶宫的风压抵抗力由铁斜杆提供的，两个特点在金属建筑物历史中是相当重要的：第一个是格子状的梁的使用，他们是很小的桁架，在木桥和其他建筑物中发展，同时也被派克斯顿用金属来表达；第二个是熟铁和铸铁的连接通过加热用铆钉嵌入。
1853年在纽约第一个金属地板梁在柯柏联盟大楼中使用。考虑到当时主要市场对铁梁的需求，所以对于柯柏联盟大楼的梁跟铁路的铁轨相似这并不惊讶。
贝塞麦法和西蒙斯-马丁制作法在19世纪50年代发展，,19世纪60开辟一条根据建筑用途使用钢铁。富有想象力的工程师们找到了最新可以利用的金属，无论压实性和拉伸性都比铁强大，尤其在英国，欧洲，美国涉及大量的铁路桥的需求
一个有名的例子就是伊兹桥，圣路易斯桥也远近有名,它是用管状钢铁形成一段跨度超过152.5米的拱。在英国，福斯湾悬臂桥（1883-1890）使用了管状支柱，有些分别长3.66米和107米。这样的桥和其他建筑物重要影响标准的发展和实施，形成允许设计压力的法则。缺少足够的理论知识，甚至理论研究的一个正确的基础，限制了在20世纪初压力分析的重要性，随着偶尔失败出现，正如1907年魁北的悬臂桥被揭露那样。但是失败很少在金属骨架办公大楼出现。他们简单明了的设计证实非常实用的，在缺少有经验分析技术的时期内。在整个世纪3分之一时期内，普通碳钢，没有加入任何特殊的合金，被普遍使用了。
金属超高的建筑的内在潜在价值在1889年的巴黎世博会上得到证实，法国首席桥梁工程师亚历山大·居斯塔夫·埃菲尔建造了有穿孔洞的高300米金属铁塔。它的杰出不仅在于高度金字塔的两倍多，而且在于建造完成时间短短几个月和成本不高，同时在展览上的巨大单层高大机器，房子，都是归功于金属建造的发展，它的顶部由横跨114.3米网格状的拱排架支撑。
第一栋摩天大楼。与此同时，在美国另外一个重要的发展出现了。在1884-1885年 威廉·勒巴隆·詹尼，一名芝加哥工程师，设计了10层高用金属作为骨架的家庭保险大楼。他用的是贝塞麦法制造的钢铁，尽管它的圆柱是生铁，生铁过梁支撑窗户洞口上面的石造工程，反过来，支撑生铁圆柱。实心的砌体庭院和共用墙体提供侧向支撑抵抗风荷载。在十年内这样类型的建造多于30栋办公大楼中使用在芝加哥和纽约。钢铁在其中扮演越来越重要角色，再用铆钉连接梁与圆柱时，有时通过在垂直方向的和水平方向的构件覆盖节点板可以加强抗风支撑。薄砌体幕墙，支撑每层楼面水平，代替过时的笨重砌体。
尽管在过去数十年里，几乎整个美国的新建筑的外形依然能保持稳定。它对钢铁工业的影响是世界性的。在19世纪最后几年，基本的建筑外形—I梁提高了0.508米深度，Z，T外形的则比例相对小点，可以准备和板的的宽度和厚度结合，让构件符合所需的尺寸和强度。1885年最重的建筑外形通过用每立方英尺不少45千克重量去热扎生产出来；十年又十年，这样情况一直发展上升，直到20世纪60年代，已经远远超过每立方英尺320千克了
与建筑的钢铁同时采用的奥的斯电梯在1889年，这证实了一个安全的乘客电梯，要配合一个安全的经济的建造方法来到达高耸的建筑。在1902年的纽约87.2米的熨斗大厦，被后来的1904年的115米高的泰晤士大厦（更名为联合化学大厦），在华尔街的143米高的城市投资公司大厦，187米高的辛格大厦（1908）,214米高的城市塔（1909）和伍尔沃思大厦等超过
大楼的高度和宽度的快速增加带来了问题。为了限制街道的拥挤，大厦的逆流设计被规定了。在技术的方面，侧向支持的问题进行了研究，一种斜的支撑体系，正如运用到埃菲尔铁塔，这并不是设计办公室的阳光的照明。原因更多取决于各自独立可靠的梁和圆柱的弯曲抵抗力，有条理设计入骨架，连同更高的坚硬度梁和圆柱的连接点。在现代户内照明系统的发展，然而，； 对角支撑对抗风荷载重新使用。一个有名的例子就是在芝加哥的约翰汉库克中心，外部的X支撑形成建筑物的正面的一部分
第一次世界大战中断了摩天大楼（这个词来源不确定）的繁荣，在上个世纪20年代，纽约恢复了建造高楼高度竞赛，在1931帝国大厦的建成达到顶峰。帝国大厦102层（381米）高，它接下来40年里保持世界最高的大厦的记录。它的安装速度证明了新的建造技术彻底地给掌握。巴约讷海岸对面的军队以驳船搬运和卡车运输提供给梁，九台电力转臂起重机把梁吊到适合的位置，一条工业轨道负责为每一层运输钢铁和其他材料。随着建筑高度的增加，在建筑外面起吊的发动机提升到更高的位置，起初的连接是先螺栓连接，然后是铆钉连接，最后是砌墙体和装修，整个工程完成花费了1年45天
上个世纪30年代全世界的经济大萧条和第二次世界大战，阻碍了钢结构的发展。但与此同时，焊接技术的采用，代替了铆钉连接是一个重要发展。
在十九世纪末，钢筋的构件通过焊接成功地连接一起。这种技术在第一次世界大战期间被运用到紧急救护船的维修，但直到第二次世界大战之后才运用到建筑中。自从在车间发展获得稳定发展，另外一个重要发展出现相同的领域，就是高强度的螺栓取替了铆钉连接。
至第二次世界大战之后，欧洲，美国，日本等国家扩大了对不同类型的建筑钢筋在不同的压力下的变化的研究，包括临界屈服点，做更加精确的系统的数据分析。这导致很多国家采用更加开明的法规，允许更自由，更富有想象力地在节约成本下条件下使用更加高强度的材料去所谓灵活设计，电脑的取代冗长乏味的手写计算，能去的更大的发展和减低成本。
