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名词解释：
*行政的定义 administration eentially involves following instructions and service.*管理的定义(1)the achievement of results(2)personal responsibility by the manager for results being achieved.*公共产品定义 public goods are quite different as they benefit all users whether or not they have paid the price.They are “non-excludable”, that is, if provided to one, they are available to all.*公共政策定义 public policy can be characterized as the output of a diffuse proce made up of individuals who interact with each other in small groups in a framework dominated by formal organizations.Those organizations function in a system of political institutions, rules and practices, all subject to societal and cultural influences.*战略管理定义 strategic management is a way of conducting the firm that has as an ultimate objective the development of corporate values, managerial capabilities, organizational responsibilities, and administrative systems that link strategic and operational decision making, at all hierarchical levels, and acro all businees and functional lines of authority in a firm.*战略计划定义 strategic planning is a disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions shaping the nature and direction of governmental activities, within constitutional bounds.*绩效指标定义“Performance indicator”,that is some way of measuring the progre the organization has made towards achieving declared objectives.*预算定义 the most general definition budget is concerned with the translation of financial resource into human purpose
2、the budget becomes a mechanism for making choices among alternative expenditure
3、budget is a document，containing words and figures，which propose expenditures for certain items and purposes.*电子化政府定义 E-government，as a term，may refer to ‘the use of information technology，in particular the internet，to deliver public services in a much more convenient，customer-oriented，cost-effective，and altogether different and better way.A broader definition of e-government is the adoption of any information and communication technology by government.*电子商务定义 E-busine in the sense of electronic exchanges involving commercial and fee-for-service translations is a rapidly growing sector of the economy in a number of countries.简答题：
职能/任务/目标：
*一般管理的职能（1）strategy①establishing objectives and priorities.②devising operational plans.（2）managing internal components.①organizing and staffing.②directing personnel and the personnel management system.③controlling performance.（3）managing external constituencies①dealing with ”external” units②dealing with independent organizations③dealing with the pre and public.*政府的职能（1）establishing a foundation of law（2）maintaining a non-distortionary policy environment, including macroeconomic stability（3）investing in basic social services and infrastructure（4）protecting the vulnerable（5）protecting the environment.*预算财政职能 First，an evaluation of total government and public authority expenditures within the budget sector；and，secondly，to act as the legislature＇s instrument of accountability and control over the government in its handling of financial matters.*公务员管理任务（1）formulation of policy under political direction（2）creating the “machinery” for implementation of policy.（3）operation of the administrative machine（4）accountability to Parliament and the Public.*战略管理目标 strategic management aims to integrate the planning function with the over all management task.1
原理/理论：
*传统公共行政基本原理（1）bureaucracy（2）one-best-way of working and procedures were set out in comprehensive manuals for administrators to follow.(3)Principle was bureaucratic delivery.(4)politics/administration dichotomy.(5)The motivation of the individual public servant was aumed to be that of the public interest.(6)A profeional bureaucracy,neutral, anonymous, employed life, with the ability to serve any political master equally.(7)Administrative following the instructions provided by others without personal responsibility for results.*韦伯现代官僚制体系的六项原则（1）the principle of fixed and official jurisdictional areas, which are generally ordered by rules, that is by laws or administrative regulations.（2）the principles of office hierarchy and of levels of graded authority mean a firmly ordered system of super and sub-ordination in which there is a supervision of the lower offices by the higher ones.（3）the management of the modern office is based upon written documents which are preserved.（4）office management ,at least all specialized office management-and such management is distinctly modern-usually presupposes thorough and expert training.（5）when the office is fully developed, official activity demands the full working capacity of the official.official busine was discharged as a secondary activity.（6）the management of the office follows general rules, which are more or le stable ,more or le exhaustive, and which can be learned.*新古典主义理论（1）the aumption of individual rationality（2）the elaboration of models from this aumption（3）a maximum role for market forces（4）a minimum role for government
*科学管理理论（泰勒）（1）time-and-motion studies to decide a standard for working（2）a wage-incentive system that was a modification of the piecework method already in existence（3）changing the functional organization.*威尔逊对传统行政提出的观点：politicians should be responsible for making policy, while the administration would be responsible for carrying it out.*经验主义（1）benefit-cost analysis（2）decision theory（3）optimum level analysis（4）allocation theory（5）time-optimization models
*公共管理改革主要论点
（1）a strategic approach（2）management not administration（3）a focus on results（4）improved financial management
（5）flexibility in staffing（6）flexibility in organization（7）a shift to greater competition（8）the new contractualism
（9）a stre on private sector styles of management practice（10）relationships with politicians（11）relationships with the public（12）separation of purchaser and provider（13）re-examining what government does.法案/模式/体系：
*《文官法案》（1）the holding of competitive examinations for all applicants to the claified service（2）the making of appointments to the claified service from those graded highest in the examinations（3）the interposition of an effective probationary period before absolute appointment（4）the apportionment of appointments at Washington according to the population of the several states and other major areas.*《文官改革法》 the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 aimed at giving managers greater responsibility for results.It included merit pay for middle management and the establishment of a Senior Executive Service to form an elite group at the top.Although focused on personnel, it was an attempt to improve management in the public sector, which seemed to lag behind the private sector.*传统公共行政模式（《诺斯科特-特立威廉报告》）（1）merit through examinations.（2）non-partisan（3）neutral administration.*政策周期模式（1）verify, define and detail the problem（2）establish evaluation criteria（3）identify alternative policies（4）evaluate alternative policies（5）display and select among alternative policies（6）monitor policy outcomes *布莱森战略计划模式（1）initiating and agreeing on a strategic planning proce.（2）identifying organization mandates.（3）clarifying organization miion and values.（4）aeing the external environment.（5）aeing the internal environment.（6）identify the strategic iues facing an organization.（7）formulating strategies to manage the iues
（8）establishing an effective organization vision for the future.*绩效评估体系
The performance appraisal system aims to measure the performance of individual staff，even to the extent of defining the key contributions expected over the year，which are then compared with actual achievement at the end of the year.其他：
*公共企业的类型 A public enterprise is a particular kind of statutory authority: one that sells goods and services to the public on a large scale, with the financial returns accruing in the first instance to the authority itself.*建立公共企业的理由 these can include: inadequate private supply of goods and services;rescuing private firms if their closure is against the public interest;improving competition;reducing social costs such as environmental externalities;even to protect national sovereignty in some way.(1)to correct market failure(2)to alter the structure of pay-offs in an economy(3)to facilitate centralized long-term economic planning(4)to change the nature of the economy, from capitalist to socialist.*企业战略计划（1）the miion（2）the environmental scan（3）objectives
*市场失灵（公共管理必要性）（1）public goods（2）externalities（3）natural monopoly（4）imperfect information（5）limitations of market failure
*变革的急迫问题（1）the attack on the public sector ①the scale of the public sector was simply too large.②there were governmental responses to arguments about the scope of government.③there was a sustained attack on the methods of government, with bureaucracy in particular becoming highly unpopular.(2)economic theory:①public choice theory②principal/agent theory③transaction cost theory.*私人管理与公共管理（1）in a way not characteristic of the private sector, public sector decisions may be coercive.（2）the public sector has different forms of accountability from the private sector.（3）the public service manager must cope with an outside agenda largely set by the political leadership.（4）the public sector has inherent difficulties in measuring output or efficiency in production.（5）the public sector's sheer size and diversity make any control or coordination difficult.*战略计划和战略管理的区别 the difference between them is that strategic planning is focused on making optimal strategy decisions, while strategic management is focused on producing strategic results.Strategic management, therefore ,is more comprehensive, rather than merely drawing up a plan it aims at integrating planning with all the other parts of the organization.*政府治理 by governance, we mean the procees and institutions, both formal and in formal, that guide and restrain the collective activities of a group.Government is the subset that acts with authority and creates formal obligations.Governance need not necearily be conducted exclusively be governments.*政府工具（1）provision, where the government provides goods or services through the government budget.（2）subsidy, which is really a sub-category of provision and is where the government aists someone in the private economy to provide government desired goods or services（3）production, where governments produce goods and service for sale in the market.（4）regulation, which involves using the coercive powers of the state to allow or prohibit certain activities in the private economy.*政府干预的阶段（1）the laiez-faire society（2）the rise of the welfare state（3）Neoclaicism（4）government makes a comeback
*战略计划的五阶段演变（1）the evolution of planning: budgeting and financial control（2）long-range planning（3）busine strategic planning（4）corporate strategic planning（5）strategic management
